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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Varibles, Hypothesis, Validity, Reliability, Generalization, Errors in Research

• Research Hypothesis - Testing Theories and Models
• Research Variables - Values that Change
• Confounding Variables - Third Variables Affecting the Results
• Controlled Variables - The Scientists Tries to Avoid Interference
• Dependent Variable - Measuring the Effect in Research
• Independent Variable - The Manipulated Variable in Research
• Validity and Reliability - How to Know if the Research is Correct?
• What is Generalization? - Do Research Apply to the Real World?
• Defining a Research Problem - Specifying What to Research
• How to Choose From Different Research Methods?
• Drawing Conclusions in Research - Judgment by the Scientific Method
• Null Hypothesis - The Commonly Accepted Hypothesis
• Operationalization - Defining Variables Into Measurable Factors
• Choosing Scientific Measurements - What is Important?
• Experimental Errors: Type I Error and Type II Error
• Hypothesis Testing - Comparing the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
• Science Misconceptions - How to Misunderstand Research
• External Validity - Generalizing Results
• Population Validity - Generalize to a Population as a whole
• Ecological Validity - Environmental Influence when Generalizing
• Internal Validity - The Confidence in the Cause-Effect Relationship
• Construct Validity - Does the Concept Match the Specific Measurement?
• Face Validity - Representation Validity
• Content Validity (AKA Logical or Rational Validity)
• Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity
• Test Validity - Can the Measurement Be Trusted?
• Criterion Validity - Does a Test Reflect a Certain Set of Abilities?
• Concurrent Validity - How Well Does a Test Measure the Same as the Old Measure?
• Predictive Validity - Does the Test Predict Future Performance?
• Types of Validity - An Overview
• Definition of Reliability - The Scientific Method
• Instrument Reliability - Ensuring Reliable Measurement
• Internal Consistency Reliability (Internal Compability Test)
• Interrater Reliability - Interobserver Reliability
• Reproducability - Is It Possible to Replicate a Study?
• Test-Retest Reliability - Simple Reliability Testing
• Research Population - The Focus Group of a Scientific Query
• Replication Study - Repeating a Previous Study
• Conceptual Variables - Constructs in Science
• Empirical Evidence - Convincing Scientific Proof
• Scientific Observation - Collecting Empirical Evidence

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH Aims, Creating and Conducting Experiments, Experimental Design, Sampling, Pilots, Analysis

• Conducting an Experiment - Carry Out Experimental Research
• Design of Experiment - Testing a Hypothesis
• Double Blind Experiment - Avoiding Bias
• Ad Hoc Analysis - Explaining Contrary Evidence
• Experimental Research and Society
• What is Sampling? - Representing a Population
• Random Sampling Error - Failure to Reflect the Population Accurately
• Scientific Control Group - Experimental Research
• Social Science Subjects - Participants in Research
• Research Bias - Experimenter Bias
• Hawthorne Effect - Observation Bias
• Convenience Sampling - Non-Probability Sampling
• Population Sampling - Selecting a Representative Subset of a Population
• Non-probability Sampling - No Randomization
• Probability Sampling and Randomization
• Sampling Error in Research - Sampling Bias
• Cluster Sampling - Sampling Whole Groups From a Population.
• Stratified Sampling - Subjects Proportionally Selected From Subgroups
• Systematic Sampling - Systematic Random Sampling
• Statistical Sampling Techniques
• Randomization - Randomized Controlled Trials
• Sample Group - A Subset of a Population
• Placebo Effect - The Hope/Expectancy-Effect
• Sample Size - The Number of Observations in Research
• Counterbalanced Measures Design - Counterbalancing Experimental Groups
• Pretest-Posttest Designs - Experimantal Research
• Randomized Controlled Trials - Reducing the Influence of Confounding Variables
• Solomon Four Group Design - Measuring the Impact of the Pretest
• Between Subjects Design - Independent Groups Design
• Matched Subjects Design - Matched Sampling
• Repeated Measures Design - Within Subject Design
• Within Subject Design - Repeated Measures Design
• Establishing Cause and Effect - Scientific Causality
• Disproportional Sampling - Probability Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling - Probability Sampling
• Judgmental Sampling - Non-Probability Sampling
• Snowball Sampling - Non-Probability Sampling
• Quota Sampling Applied in Research - Non-Probability Sampling
• Sequential Sampling - Consecutive Selection

RESEARCH PROCESS AND SCIENTIFIC REASONING 'What is Research?', History, Aims of Research, Elements, Steps, Reasoning, Logic

• What is Research?
• Definition of Research
• Aims of Research - What Are the Goals of Scientific Research?
• Purpose of Research - Why Conduct Scientific Research?
• Scientific Elements - Fundamental Parts of Scientific Research
• Steps of the Scientific Method - The Stages of Scientific Research
• The Definition of the Scientific Method
• History of the Scientific Method - From the Beginning to the Twentieth Century
• What is the Scientific Method?
• Who Invented the Scientific Method?
• Definition of Science - Knowledge Attained Through Study
• Empirical Research - Based on the Scientific Method
• Prediction in Research - How the Scientific Method Predict Future Events
• Aristotle’s Zoology - History of Biology
• Islamic Scholars and Biology - History of Biology
• Islamic Ophthalmology and Islamic Medicine
• Alchemy and the Philosopher's Stone - History of Chemistry
• Islamic Alchemy - History of Chemistry
• Ancient Medicine - History of Medicine
• Islamic Medicine - History of Medicine
• Ancient Physics - History of Physics
• Aristotle’s Psychology - History of Psychology
• Islamic Psychology - History of Psychology
• Ancient Mathematics - History of Mathematics
• Babylonian Mathematics and Babylonian Numerals
• Egyptian Mathematics - History of Mathematics
• Hypothetico-Deductive Method - Testing Theories
• Falsifiability - Karl Popper's Basic Scientific Principle
• Testability - How to Create a Scientific Theory or Hypothesis
• Scientific Reasoning - The Logic Behind Scientific Research
• Inductive Reasoning - How Small Observations Infers a Theory Through Induction
• Raven Paradox - Hempel's Logic Example Illustrate Inductive Reasoning
• Causal Reasoning - What is the Cause of a Phenomenon?
• Abductive Reasoning - Determining the Direction of Scientific Research
• Post Hoc Reasoning - Failure of Concluding Causality
• Defeasible Reasoning - Reasoning With Many Unknown Factors
• Deductive Reasoning - Deduces From General Principles

DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS Quantitative and Qualitative Research, Research Designs, Types of Studies, Reviews, Experiments

• Case Study Research Design - How to conduct a Case Study
• Descriptive Research Design - Observing a Phenomenon
• Identical Twins Study - Measuring Effects from Environment and Genetics
• Qualitative Research Design - Exploring a Subject in Depth
• Quantitative Research Design - Proving Cause and Effect
• Quasi-Experimental Design - Experimental Design without Randomization
• Survey Research Design - How to Conduct Surveys
• True Experimental Design - Experiments with Control Group Randomized
• Meta Analysis and Meta Studies
• Systematic Reviews - Evaluating Previous Research
• What is a Literature Review
• Naturalistic Observation - Research in the Natural Environment
• Field Experiments - 'Real' World Studies
• Cohort Study - Investigating a Particular Group Over Period of Time
• Observational Study - Research Without Manipulation
• Longitudinal Study - Studying Long Term Effects
• Factorial Design - Testing the Effect of Two or More Variables
• Case Control Study - When Longitudinal Studies Have Too Low Incident
• Pilot Study - Testing the Study Before Launching
• Cross Sectional Study - A Snapshot of a Population
• Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE 'What is Science?', Constructing Theories, Truth and Theory, History

• History of the Philosophy of Science
• Truth and Theory - How to Construct Theories Reflecting Reality
• Realism and Antirealism - What is the Basis of Scientific Truth?
• What is a Paradigm?
• Paradigm Shift - A Scientific Revolution
• Occam's Razor - The Simplest Answer is Most Often Correct
• Verification Error - Gathering Data to Support a Theory
• Religion vs Science Debate - Rise of Fundamentalism?
• When Science Meets Religion - The Aftermath of the Schism
• Pseudoscience - In it for the Money?
• Junk Science - Using Science to Obtain Goals
• Fringe Science - Exploring the Bounderies of Research
• Scientific Reductionism - Reducing Complex Interactions in Research

ETHICS IN RESEARCH Cost/Benefit, Informed Consent, Fraud, Plagiarism, Misconduct

• Milgram Experiment Ethics - Should We Use Deception In Experiments?
• Deception and Research - Ethics in Research
• Informed Consent Policy - Avoiding Deception in Research
• Science Fraud - Dishonesty and Forgery in Research
• Stem Cell Pros and Cons - Advantages and Disadvantages About Stem Cell Research
• Subliminal Messages - The Fraud about How They Sell More Popcorn And Coke
• Tuskegee Syphilis Study - Research without Empathy
• Academic Plagiarism - Stealing Someone Else’s Work
• Scientific Falsification - Falsifying Evidence in Research
• Scientific Misconduct - Ethical Violations in Research
• Research Grant Funding - Problems With Funding in Science
• Competition in Science - The Nasty Side of Scientific Research
• Whistleblowers in Science - Reporting Scientific Misconduct
• Animals in Research - Ethical Considerations
• Research Regulations and the Helsinki Declaration
• Sham Peer Review - Using Peer Reviews to Punish Other Scientists
• Privacy in Research - Confidentiality in Research

WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER Outline, Style, Structure, APA, MLA, Format, Peer Reviews, Publishing

• Writing a Research Paper - An Overview
• Research Paper Outline - How to Write a Research Paper
• How to Write an Outline - Writing a Research Paper
• Research Paper Format - Tips and Details
• APA Writing Style - The Terminology of the APA Standard
• Research Paper Question - The Purpose of the Paper
• What is a Thesis Statement? - Stating the Aim of Your Paper
• How to Write a Hypothesis
• Research Paper Topic Ideas - Get ideas for your research paper
• Parts of a Research Paper - How to Create the Structure for Papers
• Example of a Research Paper - How to write a Paper
• APA Title Page - Writing a Research Paper
• Writing an Abstract - How to Write a Synopsis
• How to Write an Introduction - Introducing the Research Paper
• Writing Methodology - Describing the Data Collection
• Writing a Results Section - Announcing the Findings
• Writing a Discussion Section - Interprete the Results
• Writing a Conclusion - Answering the Research Question
• Writing a Bibliography - Reference the Citations
• Table of Contents Format for Research Papers
• Writing Acknowledgements - Thanking Those Helping You
• Writing an Appendix - Adding Non-Essensial Information to Research Papers
• In Text Citation - References in Research Papers
• How to Write Footnotes in Research Papers
• How to Format a Table - Writing a Paper
• Floating Blocks - Graphs and Figures in Research Papers
• Publication Bias - Researchers Tend to Publish Only Significant Findings
• Peer Review Process and Peer Reviewed Publications
• Advantages of Peer Reviews
• Disadvantages of Peer Reviews
• Tips on Article Writing - 7 Powerful Research Paper Writing Tips
• Article Writing Help - Five Pitfalls
• APA Writing Format - How to Write Academic Papers in APA style
• MLA Writing Format - The MLA-Standard
• MLA Citations - Referencing in MLA-Standard
• APA Citations - Referencing in APA-standard
• Academic Journals - Scientific Peer Reviewed Journals
• Journal Article Submission - Submitting a Research Paper
• Research Paper Outline Examples - Sample Outlines for Research Papers
• Scientific Journal Rejection - Rejected Submissions
• Research Paper Example - A Sample of an Academic Paper

STATISTICS TUTORIAL Data Processing, Distribution, Hypothesis Testing, Experimental Error, Reliability and Tests

• Normal Probability Distribution - Gaussian Distribution
• Statistical Correlation - Strength of Relationship Between Variables
• Statistics Confidence Interval - Reliability of an Estimate
• Statistical Hypothesis Testing - How to Apply Statistics to Experiments
• Significance Test - Accepting or Rejecting a Hypothesis?
• Significance Test (2) - Is the Evidence Convincing Enough?
• Statistically Significant Results - How to Test a Hypothesis
• Statistical Reliability - Ensures Validity and Precision
• Experimental Error - Type I and Type II Errors
• Measures of Central Tendency - What is the Middle Value?
• Regression to the Mean - Often Misunderstood
• Statistical Outliers - Extreme Datapoints
• Correlation and Causation - The Incorrect Assumption of a Causal Relationship
• Bayesian Probability - Predicting Likelihood of Future Events
• Z-test - Basics and the Different Z-tests
• ANOVA Test - The Analysis Of Variance
• Factor Analysis - Categorizing Common Variables
• Linear Regression Analysis - Predicting an Unknown Value
• Multiple Regression Analysis - Predicting Unknown Values
• Student’s T-Test - Testing Hypotheses
• Student’s T-Test (2) - Testing T-Distributed Data
• Chi Square Test
• F-Test - Handling Small Sample Sizes
• P-Value - Probability of the Randomness in Sampling
• Experimental Probability and Theoretical Probability
• Independent One-Sample T-Test - Testing Whether Samples and Population Differ
• Independent Two-Sample T-Test - Does Population Means Differ?
• Dependent T-Test for Paired Samples
• Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient - Using Rankings to Calculate Correlation
• Statistical Power Analysis - Determine the Sample Size
• Random Error - Unpredictable Measurement Errors in Research
• Systematic Error - Biases in Measurements
• Statistical Treatment of Data
• Statistical Significance, Sample Size and Expected Effects
• Effect Size - Strength of Relationship
• Statistical Data Sets - Organizing the Information in Research
• Raw Data Processing - Organizing Information in Research
• Data Output - Processed Data Ready for Analysis
• Two-Way ANOVA - Comparing Two Factors
• One-Way ANOVA - Testing Multiple Levels of a Factor
• Repeated Measures ANOVA - A Within-Subject Design Using Analysis of Variance
• Factorial ANOVA - Analysing Multiple Factors With Analysis of Variance
• Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test - Non-Parametric Test
• Pearson Product Moment Correlation - Measures Relationship Between Variables
• Arithmetic Mean - A Measure of Central Tendency
• Statistical Mean - Average - Measure of Central Tendency in Statistics
• Geometric Mean - Used to Calculate Average Growth
• Calculate Median - When Outliers May Skew the Central Tendency for Means
• Statistical Mode - The Datapoint Which is Most Frequently Repeated
• Statistical Variance - A Measure of Data Distribution
• Measurement of Uncertainty: Standard Deviation
• Calculate Standard Deviation - Formula and Calculation
• Standard Error of the Mean - An Estimate of the Standard Deviation
• Statistics: Margin of Error - Reliability of the Data
• Mann-Whitney U-test (Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon)
• Correlation and Regression
• Partial Correlation Analysis - Multiple Correlation
• F-distribution - Ratios of Two Independent Estimators
• ROC curve analysis - Using Radar Technology in Science
• Cohen’s Kappa - Interrater Agreement Measurement
• Cronbach’s Alpha - Measurement of Internal Consistency
• Data Dredging - Causition When Snooping or Fishing After Data Patterns
• Descriptive Statistics - Simple Quantitative Summary of a Data
• Ethics in Statistics - Avoid Mispresentation of Data in Research
• Frequency Distribution - Occurances of Data Points in an Experiment
• Inferential Statistics - Applying Conclusions
• Nonparametric Statistics - No Assumtion to Prior Distribution
• Philosophy of Statistics - Statistical Methodology, Validity and Reliability
• Probability and Statistics - Experiments and Research
• Statistical Validity

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENTS Social Psychology Experiments, Sociology, Anthropology

• Asch Experiment - Conformity in Groups
• Asch Experiment Figure - A Drawing Shown to Participants of the Asch Experiment
• Bobo Doll Experiment - Learning From Role Models
• Good Samaritan Experiment - Would You Help a Stranger? - Explaining Helping Behavior
• Stanford Prison Experiment - Roles Define Your Behavior
• Stanford Prison Video Documentary - Interviews with Zimbardo and Participants
• Stanley Milgram Experiment - Will People Do Anything If Ordered?
• Milgram Experiment Ethics - The Research Ethics about the Milgram Experiment
• Cognitive Dissonance Experiment by Leon Festinger
• Bystander Apathy Experiment - The Case of Kitty Genovese Explained
• Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment - Realistic Conflict Theory
• Social Judgment Theory Experiment - Henry Tajfel

RESEARCH ON BIOLOGY Historical Biology Experiments and Findings

• Darwin's Finches - How the Natural Selection Was Discovered
• Red Queen Hypothesis - The Evolutionary Arms Race between Prey and Predator
• Industrial Melanism - How Human Contamination Evolved the Peppered Moth
• Law Of Segregation - The Mendel Pea Plant Experiment
• Transforming Principle - Griffith's Experiment about Genetics
• Identical Twins Study - Measuring Effects from Environment and Genetics

PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS Classic Physics Experiments and Discoveries

• Ben Franklin Kite Experiment - Struck by Lightening
• Brownian Movement - Random Movement
• J J Thomson Cathode Ray Experiment

MEDICAL RESEARCH HISTORY Historical Discoveries in Medicine, Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology

• Andreas Vesalius and the Modern Human Anatomy
• Antony van Leeuwenhoek and the Discovery of Bacteria
• Discovery of Pasteurization - Louis Pasteur
• Semmelweis' Germ Theory - The Introduction of Hand Washing
• Who Invented Vaccination?
• The History of Anesthesia and Crawford Long
• Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen and the Discovery of X-ray Beams
• History of Antibiotics - The Discovery by Alexander Fleming
• Who Discovered DNA? - Nobel Prize Winners Wilkins, Crick and Watson
• Human Genome Project - Mapping the DNA
• Telomeres and Enzyme Telomerase - 2009 Nobel Prize Medicine
• Discovery of Human Papilloma Viruses - 2008 Nobel Prize Medicine (Part 1)
• Discovery of HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) - 2008 Nobel Prize Medicine (Part 2)
• Advances in Embryonic Stem Cells - 2007 Nobel Prize Medicine
• RNA Interference - 2006 Nobel Prize Medicine
• Discovery of the bacterium Helicobacter pylori - 2005 Nobel Prize Medicine
• Odorant Receptors - 2004 Nobel Prize Medicine
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging - 2003 Nobel Prize Medicine
• Programmed Cell Death - 2002 Nobel Prize Medicine
• Key Regulators of the Cell Cycle - 2001 Nobel Prize Medicine
• Signal Transduction in the Nervous System - Nobel Prize Medicine 2000
• Intrinsic Signals in Proteins - Nobel Prize Medicine 1999
• Nitric Oxide in Cardiovascular System - Nobel Prize Medicine 1998
• Prion as an Infectious Agent - Nobel Prize Medicine 1997
• Cell Mediated Immune Defence - Nobel Prize Medicine 1996

KIDS’ SCIENCE PROJECTS Science Projects for Kids, Teachers and Parents

• How to Conduct Science Experiments - A Guide
• Experiments with Popcorn - For Kids
• Mold Bread Experiment – What Makes Mold Grow?
• Paper Airplane Experiment - For Kids
• Paper Towel Experiment - Which Brand is the Most Absorbent?
• Pendulum Experiment - How to Repeat Galileo Galileo?

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