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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

OVERVIEW - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Hypothesis - Testing Theories and Models
Research Variables - Values that Change
Confounding Variables - Third Variables Affecting the Results
Controlled Variables - The Scientists Tries to Avoid Interference
Dependent Variable - Measuring the Effect in Research
Independent Variable - The Manipulated Variable in Research
Validity and Reliability - How to Know if the Research is Correct?
What is Generalization? - Do Research Apply to the Real World?
Defining a Research Problem - Specifying What to Research
How to Choose From Different Research Methods?
Drawing Conclusions in Research - Judgment by the Scientific Method
Null Hypothesis - The Commonly Accepted Hypothesis
Operationalization - Defining Variables Into Measurable Factors
Choosing Scientific Measurements - What is Important?
Experimental Errors: Type I Error and Type II Error
Hypothesis Testing - Comparing the Null and Alternative Hypothesis
Science Misconceptions - How to Misunderstand Research
External Validity - Generalizing Results
Population Validity - Generalize to a Population as a whole
Ecological Validity - Environmental Influence when Generalizing
Internal Validity - The Confidence in the Cause-Effect Relationship
Construct Validity - Does the Concept Match the Specific Measurement?
Face Validity - Representation Validity
Content Validity (AKA Logical or Rational Validity)
Convergent Validity and Discriminant Validity
Test Validity - Can the Measurement Be Trusted?
Criterion Validity - Does a Test Reflect a Certain Set of Abilities?
Concurrent Validity - How Well Does a Test Measure the Same as the Old Measure?
Predictive Validity - Does the Test Predict Future Performance?
Types of Validity - An Overview
Definition of Reliability - The Scientific Method
Instrument Reliability - Ensuring Reliable Measurement
Internal Consistency Reliability (Internal Compability Test)
Interrater Reliability - Interobserver Reliability
Reproducability - Is It Possible to Replicate a Study?
Test-Retest Reliability - Simple Reliability Testing
Research Population - The Focus Group of a Scientific Query
Replication Study - Repeating a Previous Study
Conceptual Variables - Constructs in Science
Empirical Evidence - Convincing Scientific Proof
Scientific Observation - Collecting Empirical Evidence

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

OVERVIEW - EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

Conducting an Experiment - Carry Out Experimental Research
Design of Experiment - Testing a Hypothesis
Double Blind Experiment - Avoiding Bias
Ad Hoc Analysis - Explaining Contrary Evidence
Experimental Research and Society
What is Sampling? - Representing a Population
Random Sampling Error - Failure to Reflect the Population Accurately
Scientific Control Group - Experimental Research
Social Science Subjects - Participants in Research
Research Bias - Experimenter Bias
Hawthorne Effect - Observation Bias
Convenience Sampling - Non-Probability Sampling
Population Sampling - Selecting a Representative Subset of a Population
Non-probability Sampling - No Randomization
Probability Sampling and Randomization
Sampling Error in Research - Sampling Bias
Cluster Sampling - Sampling Whole Groups From a Population.
Stratified Sampling - Subjects Proportionally Selected From Subgroups
Systematic Sampling - Systematic Random Sampling
Statistical Sampling Techniques
Randomization - Randomized Controlled Trials
Sample Group - A Subset of a Population
Placebo Effect - The Hope/Expectancy-Effect
Sample Size - The Number of Observations in Research
Counterbalanced Measures Design - Counterbalancing Experimental Groups
Pretest-Posttest Designs - Experimantal Research
Randomized Controlled Trials - Reducing the Influence of Confounding Variables
Solomon Four Group Design - Measuring the Impact of the Pretest
Between Subjects Design - Independent Groups Design
Matched Subjects Design - Matched Sampling
Repeated Measures Design - Within Subject Design
Within Subject Design - Repeated Measures Design
Establishing Cause and Effect - Scientific Causality
Disproportional Sampling - Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling - Probability Sampling
Judgmental Sampling - Non-Probability Sampling
Snowball Sampling - Non-Probability Sampling
Quota Sampling Applied in Research - Non-Probability Sampling
Sequential Sampling - Consecutive Selection

RESEARCH PROCESS

OVERVIEW - RESEARCH PROCESS

What is Research?
Definition of Research
Aims of Research - What Are the Goals of Scientific Research?
Purpose of Research - Why Conduct Scientific Research?
Scientific Elements - Fundamental Parts of Scientific Research
Steps of the Scientific Method - The Stages of Scientific Research
The Definition of the Scientific Method
History of the Scientific Method - From the Beginning to the Twentieth Century
What is the Scientific Method?
Who Invented the Scientific Method?
Definition of Science - Knowledge Attained Through Study
Empirical Research - Based on the Scientific Method
Prediction in Research - How the Scientific Method Predict Future Events
Aristotle’s Zoology - History of Biology
Islamic Scholars and Biology - History of Biology
Islamic Ophthalmology and Islamic Medicine
Alchemy and the Philosopher's Stone - History of Chemistry
Islamic Alchemy - History of Chemistry
Ancient Medicine - History of Medicine
Islamic Medicine - History of Medicine
Ancient Physics - History of Physics
Aristotle’s Psychology - History of Psychology
Islamic Psychology - History of Psychology

LOGIC AND REASONING

OVERVIEW - LOGIC AND REASONING

Hypothetico-Deductive Method - Testing Theories
Falsifiability - Karl Popper's Basic Scientific Principle
Testability - How to Create a Scientific Theory or Hypothesis
Scientific Reasoning - The Logic Behind Scientific Research
Inductive Reasoning - How Small Observations Infers a Theory Through Induction
Raven Paradox - Hempel's Logic Example Illustrate Inductive Reasoning
Causal Reasoning - What is the Cause of a Phenomenon?
Abductive Reasoning - Determining the Direction of Scientific Research
Post Hoc Reasoning - Failure of Concluding Causality
Defeasible Reasoning - Reasoning With Many Unknown Factors
Deductive Reasoning - Deduces From General Principles

RESEARCH DESIGNS

OVERVIEW - RESEARCH DESIGNS

Case Study Research Design - How to conduct a Case Study
Descriptive Research Design - Observing a Phenomenon
Identical Twins Study - Measuring Effects from Environment and Genetics
Qualitative Research Design - Exploring a Subject in Depth
Quantitative Research Design - Proving Cause and Effect
Quasi-Experimental Design - Experimental Design without Randomization
Survey Research Design - How to Conduct Surveys
True Experimental Design - Experiments with Control Group Randomized
Meta Analysis and Meta Studies
Systematic Reviews - Evaluating Previous Research
What is a Literature Review
Naturalistic Observation - Research in the Natural Environment
Field Experiments - 'Real' World Studies
Cohort Study - Investigating a Particular Group Over Period of Time
Observational Study - Research Without Manipulation
Longitudinal Study - Studying Long Term Effects
Factorial Design - Testing the Effect of Two or More Variables
Case Control Study - When Longitudinal Studies Have Too Low Incident
Pilot Study - Testing the Study Before Launching
Cross Sectional Study - A Snapshot of a Population
Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Research

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

OVERVIEW - PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

History of the Philosophy of Science
Truth and Theory - How to Construct Theories Reflecting Reality
Realism and Antirealism - What is the Basis of Scientific Truth?
What is a Paradigm?
Paradigm Shift - A Scientific Revolution
Occam's Razor - The Simplest Answer is Most Often Correct
Verification Error - Gathering Data to Support a Theory
Religion vs Science Debate - Rise of Fundamentalism?
When Science Meets Religion - The Aftermath of the Schism
Pseudoscience - In it for the Money?
Junk Science - Using Science to Obtain Goals
Fringe Science - Exploring the Bounderies of Research
Scientific Reductionism - Reducing Complex Interactions in Research

ETHICS

OVERVIEW - ETHICS IN RESEARCH

Milgram Experiment Ethics - Should We Use Deception In Experiments?
Deception and Research - Ethics in Research
Informed Consent Policy - Avoiding Deception in Research
Science Fraud - Dishonesty and Forgery in Research
Stem Cell Pros and Cons - Advantages and Disadvantages About Stem Cell Research
Subliminal Messages - The Fraud about How They Sell More Popcorn And Coke
Tuskegee Syphilis Study - Research without Empathy
Academic Plagiarism - Stealing Someone Else’s Work
Scientific Falsification - Falsifying Evidence in Research
Scientific Misconduct - Ethical Violations in Research
Research Grant Funding - Problems With Funding in Science
Competition in Science - The Nasty Side of Scientific Research
Whistleblowers in Science - Reporting Scientific Misconduct
Animals in Research - Ethical Considerations
Research Regulations and the Helsinki Declaration
Sham Peer Review - Using Peer Reviews to Punish Other Scientists
Privacy in Research - Confidentiality in Research

RESEARCH PAPER

OVERVIEW - HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH PAPER

Writing a Research Paper - An Overview
Research Paper Outline - How to Write a Research Paper
How to Write an Outline - Writing a Research Paper
Research Paper Format - Tips and Details
APA Writing Style - The Terminology of the APA Standard
Research Paper Question - The Purpose of the Paper
What is a Thesis Statement? - Stating the Aim of Your Paper
How to Write a Hypothesis
Research Paper Topic Ideas - Get ideas for your research paper
Parts of a Research Paper - How to Create the Structure for Papers
Example of a Research Paper - How to write a Paper
APA Title Page - Writing a Research Paper
Writing an Abstract - How to Write a Synopsis
How to Write an Introduction - Introducing the Research Paper
Writing Methodology - Describing the Data Collection
Writing a Results Section - Announcing the Findings
Writing a Discussion Section - Interprete the Results
Writing a Conclusion - Answering the Research Question
Writing a Bibliography - Reference the Citations
Table of Contents Format for Research Papers
Writing Acknowledgements - Thanking Those Helping You
Writing an Appendix - Adding Non-Essensial Information to Research Papers
In Text Citation - References in Research Papers
How to Write Footnotes in Research Papers
How to Format a Table - Writing a Paper
Floating Blocks - Graphs and Figures in Research Papers
Publication Bias - Researchers Tend to Publish Only Significant Findings
Peer Review Process and Peer Reviewed Publications
Advantages of Peer Reviews
Disadvantages of Peer Reviews
Tips on Article Writing - 7 Powerful Research Paper Writing Tips
Article Writing Help - Five Pitfalls
APA Writing Format - How to Write Academic Papers in APA style
MLA Writing Format - The MLA-Standard
MLA Citations - Referencing in MLA-Standard
APA Citations - Referencing in APA-standard
Academic Journals - Scientific Peer Reviewed Journals
Journal Article Submission - Submitting a Research Paper
Research Paper Outline Examples - Sample Outlines for Research Papers
Scientific Journal Rejection - Rejected Submissions
Research Paper Example - A Sample of an Academic Paper

STATISTICS

OVERVIEW - STATISTICS TUTORIAL

Normal Probability Distribution - Gaussian Distribution
Statistical Correlation - Strength of Relationship Between Variables
Statistics Confidence Interval - Reliability of an Estimate
Statistical Hypothesis Testing - How to Apply Statistics to Experiments
Significance Test - Accepting or Rejecting a Hypothesis?
Significance Test (2) - Is the Evidence Convincing Enough?
Statistically Significant Results - How to Test a Hypothesis
Statistical Reliability - Ensures Validity and Precision
Experimental Error - Type I and Type II Errors
Measures of Central Tendency - What is the Middle Value?
Regression to the Mean - Often Misunderstood
Statistical Outliers - Extreme Datapoints
Correlation and Causation - The Incorrect Assumption of a Causal Relationship
Bayesian Probability - Predicting Likelihood of Future Events
Z-test - Basics and the Different Z-tests
ANOVA Test - The Analysis Of Variance
Factor Analysis - Categorizing Common Variables
Linear Regression Analysis - Predicting an Unknown Value
Multiple Regression Analysis - Predicting Unknown Values
Student’s T-Test - Testing Hypotheses
Student’s T-Test (2) - Testing T-Distributed Data
Chi Square Test
F-Test - Handling Small Sample Sizes
P-Value - Probability of the Randomness in Sampling
Experimental Probability and Theoretical Probability
Independent One-Sample T-Test - Testing Whether Samples and Population Differ
Independent Two-Sample T-Test - Does Population Means Differ?
Dependent T-Test for Paired Samples
Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficient - Using Rankings to Calculate Correlation
Statistical Power Analysis - Determine the Sample Size
Random Error - Unpredictable Measurement Errors in Research
Systematic Error - Biases in Measurements
Statistical Treatment of Data
Statistical Significance, Sample Size and Expected Effects
Effect Size - Strength of Relationship
Statistical Data Sets - Organizing the Information in Research
Raw Data Processing - Organizing Information in Research
Data Output - Processed Data Ready for Analysis
Two-Way ANOVA - Comparing Two Factors
One-Way ANOVA - Testing Multiple Levels of a Factor
Repeated Measures ANOVA - A Within-Subject Design Using Analysis of Variance
Factorial ANOVA - Analysing Multiple Factors With Analysis of Variance
Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test - Non-Parametric Test
Pearson Product Moment Correlation - Measures Relationship Between Variables
Arithmetic Mean - A Measure of Central Tendency
Statistical Mean - Average - Measure of Central Tendency in Statistics
Geometric Mean - Used to Calculate Average Growth
Calculate Median - When Outliers May Skew the Central Tendency for Means
Statistical Mode - The Datapoint Which is Most Frequently Repeated
Statistical Variance - A Measure of Data Distribution
Measurement of Uncertainty: Standard Deviation
Calculate Standard Deviation - Formula and Calculation
Standard Error of the Mean - An Estimate of the Standard Deviation
Statistics: Margin of Error - Reliability of the Data
Mann-Whitney U-test (Mann-Whitney-Wilcoxon)
Correlation and Regression
Partial Correlation Analysis - Multiple Correlation

RESEARCH EXAMPLES

SOCIAL

OVERVIEW - SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY EXPERIMENTS

Asch Experiment - Conformity in Groups
Asch Experiment Figure - A Drawing Shown to Participants of the Asch Experiment
Bobo Doll Experiment - Learning From Role Models
Good Samaritan Experiment - Would You Help a Stranger? - Explaining Helping Behavior
Stanford Prison Experiment - Roles Define Your Behavior
Stanford Prison Video Documentary - Interviews with Zimbardo and Participants
Stanley Milgram Experiment - Will People Do Anything If Ordered?
Milgram Experiment Ethics - The Research Ethics about the Milgram Experiment
Cognitive Dissonance Experiment by Leon Festinger
Bystander Apathy Experiment - The Case of Kitty Genovese Explained
Sherif’s Robbers Cave Experiment - Realistic Conflict Theory
Social Judgment Theory Experiment - Henry Tajfel

BIOLOGY RESEARCH

OVERVIEW - EVOLUTION

Darwin's Finches - How the Natural Selection Was Discovered
Red Queen Hypothesis - The Evolutionary Arms Race between Prey and Predator
Industrial Melanism - How Human Contamination Evolved the Peppered Moth
Law Of Segregation - The Mendel Pea Plant Experiment
Transforming Principle - Griffith's Experiment about Genetics
Identical Twins Study - Measuring Effects from Environment and Genetics

PHYSICS

OVERVIEW - PHYSICS EXPERIMENTS

Ben Franklin Kite Experiment - Struck by Lightening
Brownian Movement - Random Movement
J J Thomson Cathode Ray Experiment

MEDICAL RESEARCH HISTORY

OVERVIEW - MEDICAL RESEARCH HISTORY

Andreas Vesalius and the Modern Human Anatomy
Antony van Leeuwenhoek and the Discovery of Bacteria
Discovery of Pasteurization - Louis Pasteur
Semmelweis' Germ Theory - The Introduction of Hand Washing
Who Invented Vaccination?
The History of Anesthesia and Crawford Long
Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen and the Discovery of X-ray Beams
History of Antibiotics - The Discovery by Alexander Fleming
Who Discovered DNA? - Nobel Prize Winners Wilkins, Crick and Watson
Human Genome Project - Mapping the DNA

KIDS SCIENCE PROJECTS

OVERVIEW - KIDS SCIENCE PROJECTS

How to Conduct Science Experiments - A Guide
Experiments with Popcorn - For Kids
Mold Bread Experiment – What Makes Mold Grow?
Paper Airplane Experiment - For Kids
Paper Towel Experiment - Which Brand is the Most Absorbent?
Pendulum Experiment - How to Repeat Galileo Galileo?

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